Sovereignty,+Legitimacy+and+Power

Legitimacy - a government's right to rule, both in a legal sense and as perceived by the people - YX Wood Terms - YX  Current Events Articles - YX Recent articles about the Iranian authorities' response to planned political protests here and here
 * **Theocracy** – a government ruled strictly by religion
 * **Secularization** – the belief that religion and government should be separated
 * **Shiism** – faction of Islam that holds that only that the true heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali (they were also the rulers of Persia). In the 9th century, the line was broken when the 12th descendant disappeared. Since the 16th century, the rulers of Persia claimed that they stood in the descendant's place as the true heirs of Islam. This claim later passed onto Khomeini and the leaders of the Islamic Republic of Iran
 * **Authoritarian** – a form of government where the state has supreme power over governmental and legal issues, but stays away from the lives of individuals
 * **Revolution of 1979 –** a popular uprising centered around Ayatollah Khomeini, the charismatic “union of political and religious interests from ancient days”; Muhammad Reza Shah, the last of the Pahlavi shahs, was installed by an invasion of British and Soviet troops in 1941, and deposed in 1979
 * **Constitution of 1979** – the original document forged out of the revolution of 1979 that gives the right to rule to the current government
 * **Jurist’s Guardianship** (vilayat-e faqih) – The system of government of Iran that Khomeini defined. It set up a group of experts, also known as Jurists or faqih, that hold guardianship over the people. These experts serve the Supreme Leader. The faqih are selected, rather than elected, through emulation (taqlid) of the jurist. Khomeini saw it as the blend of democracy and theocracy.

Summary  Iran has been racked by political protests since late June during their highly contested presidential elections. The Iranian authorities managed to bring the pandemonium down to a more manageable level since its high points over the summer, but now with the 31st anniversary of the Islamic Revolution coming up on Thursday, the protesters have been taking to the streets. In retaliation and anticipation, the government has “slowed Internet service”, “shut down text messaging services” and threatened to block Gmail. Their hopes are by removing these tools that the protesters used to organize over the summer, they can prevent another major issue for their legitimacy. Another precaution that the authorities have taken is the arrest of “well-known reformists”, “journalists”, “artists, photographers” and now even “children’s rights advocates, women’s rights activists, students” and “the wife and children of an imprisoned journalist”. However, shouts of the prohibited “God is great” ringing from rooftops serve as tantalizing evidence that the police efforts will not be successful.

Connection  The legitimacy of the current Iranian regime has been crumbling since the contested June elections, where the incumbent, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad won a landslide victory over reformist candidate Mir-Hossein Mousavi. The people no longer believe in the right of the government to rule; their protests are a clear sign of that. However, the government has continued to rule and has attempted to quell the popular protests against its rule through subjugation of its people, further undermining its legitimacy. The Islamic Republic of Iran is a now a republic in name only. The people have spoken and acted out against it. Now only time will tell what becomes of it.

<span style="color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,-webkit-fantasy; font-size: 18px; line-height: 27px;">Legitimacy in the Modern State - JK

Iran is one of the rare modern theocracies and follows a hilariously convoluted power structure that allows clergy to oversee almost every aspect of political, religious and cultural life. Although 89% of the population share the Shia faith, this hasn’t done much to unite the people either in support or opposition of the government.

Despite a struggle between divinely inspired clerical rule and sovereignty of the people, the government of Iran had maintained a decent amount of domestic legitimacy after the Revolution of 1979. However, the presidential elections held in June 2009 completely shook the foundations.

There are a few peculiar stipulations concerning the president laid out in the Constitution; Article 115 says “The President shall be elected from among distinguished religious and political personalities having the following qualifications: He shall be of Iranian origins, have Iranian citizenship, be efficient and prudent, have a record of good reputation, honesty and piety, and be true and faithful to the essentials of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the official Faith of the country,” and although Article 114 of the Iranian Constitution says that “The President shall be elected by the direct vote of the people,” Article 118 of the Iranian Constitution states that “The Guardian Council shall be responsible for supervising over the presidential elections" and provides thatany candidate who runs for president must de filtered by the Ayatollah himself.

According to Iran’s official news agency, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad recevied 62.46% of the vote, and Mir-Hossein Mousavi Khameneh 33.87%, though a number of countries (and Iranians) expressed concern over irregularities in the voting record and many doubted the veracity of the results. Protests in favor of Mousavi broke out in Tehran, but Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei urged the nation to unite behind Ahmadinejad, labeling his victory as a "divine assessment."

In the wake of these elections, basically, one group does not want a theocracy at all, one group of Iranians wants merely to reform this highly religious government, and one group supports the current government. Although there is a great amount of dissent and little belief in the government throughout the country, the "movement" against it is not really a movement of all, but rather a number of distressed citizens lacking leadership and organization.

<span style="color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,-webkit-fantasy; font-size: 18px; line-height: 27px;">Additional Source Speaking to Iranian Legitimacy - JK

=
<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">[|The Iranian Revolution: A Process of Theocratic Legitimacy by Farnad Darnell] (Mainly pages 8-14) ====== <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Key excerpts:
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">“Ayatollah Khomeini’s Revolution was rooted in the candid ability to carry out such a movement. This was due to what Max Weber designated //<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">charismatic authority // <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">. According to Weber, those with charismatic authority are “self-appointed leaders who are followed by those who are in distress and who need to follow the leader because they believe him to be extraordinarily qualified” ”
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">“In essence, the Ayatollah sought support from a number of groups, primarily from the rural towns, which lacked the cosmopolitan and populous constituency, the clerics, the rural sought to maintain the Islamic identity that had been a part of Iran for 1500 years.”
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">“The explanation of morality is a central theme of Islam -- it was key to Ayatollah Khomeini’s movement, and was already rooted in the traditions of Islam. He was able to usurp the government with the support of the people, and in part with the rhetoric of morality as his ally. The Qur’an, as the holy book of Islam and guide for all believers, strengthened the Ayatollah’s movement.”
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">“Razi (1987) also compares and contrasts the sources and role of legitimacy ( //<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">haqqaniyat // <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">) the Shah failed to adhere to and the Ayatollahs (Khomeini and Khameini) thus far have maintained in their leadership roles within the Islamic Republic of Iran. For Razi, the three sources of legitimacy include nationalism, constitutionalism, religion”
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">“Second, constitutionalism meant a justification of dictatorship by the Shah, but which would ultimately lead to a loss of authority… Such activities as public elections, intolerance of sham parties //<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">created under his own direction // <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 90%;">, the lack of authority by the parliament, and his subservience to other powers (Britain and the United States) further de-legitimatized his authority”

<span style="color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,fantasy; font-size: 18px; line-height: 27px;">Constitutional Analysis - SR <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">The Constitution of Iran begins with a detailed outline of the history and future goals of the 1979 Islamic revolution, including democracy, an anti-materialist economy, and women’s rights. The first chapter sets forth the general principles of the newly formed government, an important stepping stone for such an ideologically based revolution. The enumerated principles can be basically summed up as a belief in and desire to become closer to the One God Allah. Subsequent chapters outline the rights of citizens (including many of those listed in the Bill of Rights but also rights to work and welfare), and explain the general structure of and specific guidelines for the Economy, Fiscal Policy, the Islamic Consultative Assembly, various Councils (e.g. Regional, Supreme, Worker), Executive Power, the Judiciary, Radio and Television, and the Supreme Council for National Security.

The explicit religious and ideological basis of the Constitution, made evident by the repeated direct quotes from the Qur’an, set this Constitution apart from those of many other countries. The very specific nature of many of the chapters creates much more depth and planning than most other constitutions would.

For a copy of the (rather long) Constitution: Constitution

<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">Constitutional Legitimacy in a Few Interesting Excerpts - JK/SR <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 104%;">(Mainly because any Constitution containing the phrase “the sapling of the evolution, watered by the blood of more than 60,000 martyrs” is unquestionably worth reading) § **Preamble** – “The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran advances the cultural, social, political, and economic institutions of Iranian society based on Islamic principles and norms, which represent an honest aspiration of the Islamic Ummah” § **Islamic Government** – “But the people, aroused, conscious, and resolute under the decisive and unfaltering leadership of the Imam, embarked on a triumphant, unified, comprehensive, and countrywide uprising” § **The Price the Nation Paid** – “This great movement, which attained victory through reliance upon faith, unity, and the decisiveness of its leadership at every critical and sensitive juncture, as well as the self-sacrificing spirit of the people, succeeded in upsetting all the calculations of imperialism and destroying all its connections and institutions” § **The Form of Government in Islam** – “In the view of Islam, government does not derive from the interests of a class, nor does it serve the domination of an individual or a group. Rather, it represents the fulfillment of the political ideal of a people who bear a common faith and common outlook, taking an organized form in order to initiate the process of intellectual and ideological evolution towards the final goal, i.e., movement towards Allah” § **The Form of Government in Islam** – “With due attention to the Islamic content of the Iranian Revolution, the Constitution provides the necessary basis for ensuring the continuation of the Revolution at home and abroad” § **Article 1 [Form of Government]**– “The form of government of Iran is that of an Islamic Republic, endorsed by the people of Iran on the basis of their longstanding belief in the sovereignty of truth and Koranic justice, in the referendum of 29 and 30 March 1979, through the affirmative vote of a majority of 98.2% of eligible voters, held after the victorious Islamic Revolution led by Imam Khumayni” <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> § **Article 4 [Islamic Principle]** – “All civil, penal financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria” <span style="font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;"> § **Article 56 [Divine Right of Sovereignty]** – “Absolute sovereignty over the world and man belongs to God, and it is He Who has made man master of his own social destiny. No one can deprive man of this divine right, nor subordinate it to the vested interests of a particular individual or group. The people are to exercise this divine right in the manner specified in the following articles”

<span style="color: #008000; font-family: Georgia,fantasy; font-size: 17px; line-height: 25px;">Political and Historic Traditions - BB

__**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Five Trends: **__ <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;"> 1. Persian Culture 2. Shiism Influence 3. Secular vs. Religious 4. Democratic vs. Authoritarian State 5. Relations with the Western world

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-weight: normal;"> __Safavids __
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">__Eras:__

1. Persian cultural influence was very strong at this time. The Safavids ruled from a Persian speaking city and most bureaucrats were Persian. The country was known as Persia, and Persian was the official language. However, the ruling line was not purely Persian, and the spread of culture was mainly religious. 2. The Safavids established Shiism as the official religion of the empire and converted 90% of the population to Shiism. They claimed to be descendants of the Twelve Imams, and they relied on this heritage for legitimacy. The religion the Safavids brought was the most lasting influence of their empire. 3. Religion dominated over secularism. 4. The Safavids tried to be completely authoritarian, but they didn't have enough power to enforce such a rule. Popularly approved local leaders collected taxes and kept order for the central government. 5. There were no relations between Persia and the Western world yet. Sources: []

__Qajars __

1. The area was still known as Persia, and the Qajars were a purely Persian line of rulers. The Persian culture thrived in this dynasty. 2. They retained Shiism as the official state religion, and Shiites controlled the majority of government positions including the monarchy and all cabinet positions both before and after the Constitutional Revolution. 3. The Qajars imposed a less strict theocratic rule than the Safavids, but they couldn't claim to be descendants of the Twelve Imams leaving Shiite clerics as the main interpreters of Islam and separating church and state significantly. The Constitutional Revolution separated church and state even more by creating the <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Majles <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-weight: normal;">, a strong legislative body, to balance executive theocratic power. 4. The Qajars tried to uphold an authoritarian regime, but they weren't strong enough to control the potential insurrection building during their reign. They compromised with the citizens in the Constitutional Revolution when they created the Majles, a strong legislative body, to offset the power of the monarchy. 5. This era marks the beginning of Iran's resentment towards the West. Persia suffered land losses to European imperialism, and oil-drilling rights in parts of the country were sold to Britain. The shah led the country into serious debt with European bank with his excessive living style, and fear of the money to pay off domestic debts going to repay European loans sparked the Constitutional Revolution. Sources: []

__Pahlavis__ Mohammad Reza Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

1. Reza Shah (the first of the two shahs) was very sensitive to the perception of Persian culture by the rest of the world. He heavily supported the advancement of the culture and requested that the area formerly known as Persia be referred to as Iran because "Persia" was a term used by Western peoples for the country called "Iran" in Persian. 2. Despite the fact that both shahs in this dynasty were Shiite, many devote practices of Shiism were brutally repressed. The Pahlavis passed laws requiring everyone to wear Western clothes, all citizens to bring their wives to public functions without head coverings, and mosques to use chairs during mourning observances instead of sitting on the floor among other restrictions. 3. The Pahlavis vigorously introduced increasingly secular reforms in an effort to assimilate to Western culture. 4. Reza Shah: complete and successfully controlling authoritarian rule, Majles lost all power Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (son of Shah): lost authoritarian power to Muhammad Mosaddeq (elected prime minister), reinstated as shah by US and Britain, still didn't hold the complete control his father commanded 5. Reza Shah developed close ties with Germany which received such an adverse reaction from the West that he was forced to abdicate the throne to his son. Shah instilled greater resentment of the West in the Iranian people because he forced Western culture on them despite its contradiction to their religious values. The US and Britain reinstated Muhammad Reza Pahlavi against popular opinion in Iran. Afterwards, Iranians saw the shah as a pawn of foreign powers and the West as supporters of autocracy. Sources: []

__Islamic Revolution and Republic*__ ** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">*The historical trends I am focusing on change drastically throughout this time period; therefore, I am splitting the period up into sections determined by regimes. The President and Supreme Leader both influence governmental policy greatly, so I chose whichever leader I thought had the most influence on Iran's position on each of the trends being considered and analyzed their approach to each topic and the effects their policies had on the country.


 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (Supreme Leader)

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-weight: normal;">1. no real Persian emphasis from government 2. Khomeini set up a reactionary government to enact a Shiite interpretation of Islamic law as state law. 3. Most forms of secularism were against the religious law of the country. 4. The 1979 Constitution set up a government to balance authoritarian and democratic elements of state, but the dominating charisma of Khomeini and his strong theocratic agenda made the state lean toward authoritarianism. 5. Khomeini led Iran into very poor relations with the Western world. He referred the the US as "the Great Satan" and during his regime ** Sources: []

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Mohammed Khatami (President)**

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-weight: normal;">1. no real Persian emphasis from government 2. Islamic law=state law 3. Khatami allowed mild secularism. He was more liberal than his predecessor and successor, but religion still very much dominated over secular values and ideas. 4. Khatami's reforms allowed Iranians to have a stronger voice in their government. He made it easier to organize political groups, decreased censorship of the press, and some open protests were permitted. The authoritarian elements of the state were more greatly balanced by the democratic ones under Khatami. 5. He tried to improve relations with the West and allowed inspections of Iran's nuclear facilities by the International Atomic Energy Agency as a part of that effort. Sources: []


 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (President) **

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-weight: normal;">1. no real Persian emphasis from government 2. Islamic law=state law 3. Ahmadinejad brought a return to complete religious dominance. He cracked down against Western dress, arresting women who showed too much hair under headscarves or wore makeup. 4. Both authoritarian and democratic elements were still present, but authoritarianism definitely dominated. 5. Ahmadinejad has been very antagonistic towards the West, particularly in regards to the US. He was quoted saying in regards to the global economic crisis that "The American empire in the world is reaching the end of its road, and its next rulers must limit their interference to their own borders." Sources: []

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 120%;"> Shi'ism :** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">As the only country in the world that is predominantly Shi’a Muslim instead of Sunni Muslim, Iranians have often felt both separated from other Middle Eastern countries and martyred for the violence that seems to surround their faith. Iran enjoys being different from other countries for its belief in the Twelfth Imam, yet is resentful towards other countries and the world for the prevalence of Sunni Islam over Shi’a Islam. Shi’a Islam holds that Mohammed had one more descendant, the Twelfth Imam, who is unseen/invisible. The Shiites are awaiting his return to earth, and until then, whatever government is in power is supported by Allah as being the Supreme Authority. <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 121%;">As an extension of religious culture, the oppression of women in Iran is simply part of culture now, as it is somewhat sanctioned by the religious authorities as being permissible. While women in Iran do have more protection and power than in many other developing countries with religious regimes (i.e., the ability to get a college degree), strict codes for dress and behavior are in effect in accordance with Sharia law, which equates religious doctrine with civil codes. For example, not going to temple or not wearing appropriate head coverings could be as serious an offense as stealing or assault.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Political Culture

Infallibility is another tenet of Iranian political culture related to Shiism. Historically, the king of the Persian Empire was said to be the “King of Kings,” put upon earth to carry out the will of Allah. Following Muslim beliefs, the king was therefore always right and never culpable for anything; whatever happened was the will of Allah. This belief has been translated into the current theocratic republic, under the rules of Khomeini and Khamenei, so that anything done under the government is sanctioned by Allah himself and is unquestionable.

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 120%;">1979 Revolution: ** The revolution of the Iranian people against their traditional rulers and the influence of the Western World still resonates within the country. While the new regime did bring some extreme changes, many Iranians are happy with their new ability to vote and the strength of faith and religion in government. Many other Iranians, however, are unhappy with the strictness of the new regime and many of its human rights violations. The Revolution, in politics, has created a new political atmosphere where, on the small scale, people of a country used to monarchy for 2500 years can feel as though they have the ability to affect government.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 120%;">**History – Nationalism:** Iran is a country with a long history. Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent once occupied part of the region. Afterwards, the incredibly successful Persian Empire ruled almost half of Eurasia. After the fall of the Persian Empire, though the area went through many changes in power, from Greek rule to Muslim rule to the massacres of Genghis Khan and his descendants, Persians remained very culturally strong and united. Persians took the Muslim faith and changed it into their own particular kind, Shi’a Islam. In somewhat more recent history, the rise of demand for oil and petroleum led to British semi-colonization of Iran in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While Britain was not really in charge of the area of Iran, they obtained- from people loyal to them in the Iranian government- license to drill for oil and export it out of the country, while paying a small percentage of profits to the government of Iran. Iranians would not stand for this stealing from their country, and their new ruler, Mossadegh, who took power by preaching out against the evils of the British government, saw to the nationalization of the oil industry, which was very profitable in Iran. Through all of these changes on power, Iranians have stayed strong and united.

The independent spirit of Persians has led now into a highly nationalist state, powerful in its country bloc but ready to be a world power. Iran, so often shaken with deposed governments and taken advantage of by the West, wants its rightful place among. Based on history, they distrust other nations and have a strong wish to be independent, whatever the cost. Recently, this has led to scares over the possible development of nuclear weapons as a way for Iran to thrust its way to the top and achieve power over other nations.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #147b1a; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 120%;">**Political Inefficacy**: Even after the successful 1979 Revolution, Iranians are still somewhat plagued by the feeling of political inefficacy. With all of the overthrows of governments and coup d’états, Iranians still feel as though they have no real impact on government or ability to change it, even though in today’s government many officials, including the president, are popularly elected. It is true that many people don’t really have the ability to affect government, as many times elections are rigged and the candidate that is popular with the religious leaders takes office. Because of this, even if many Iranians were unhappy with the current state of government and unbelieving in its legitimacy, they might not take action, believing it worthless.



<span style="color: #b4df62; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">
 * Current Events: Political Culture**

Summary- This article discusses the growing number of women who are becoming educated in Iran's finest universities. For them, education leads not only to independence of finances, ut also an escape from arranged amrriage. Throughout Iran, women born during the age of the Islamic Revolution are finding ways to be independent in a very limited society. Divorce raes are higher, and so are the number of women who hold college degrees. As the women of Iran are changing, many wonder what the new generation of Iranians will turn out to be like. As they gradually become more independent, they may question the legitimacy of a government that restricts them severely. They may also raise a new generation of Iranians dissatisfied with the theocratic regime.
 * Shi'ism:** []

Summary- This article discusses the feelings of Iranians after the election of Ahmadinejad- many are very unhappy and seeking to riot. This article also discusses the feeling of bordering nations about Ahmadinejad's election. Israel is happy for an opponent that is very easy to publicly criticize. Lebanon is wondering about possible implications with Hezbollah, the pro-fundamentalist group strong in both Iran and Lebanon. They are hopeful that now the world will focus on Iran's governemnt instead of their own. Many Iraqis are ambivalent about what will happen, but they are very used to revolt and are mostly unfazed. Other Gulf states have congratulated Ahmadinejad on his win but have remained on guard for whatever the new leader may do. As other countries question the legitimacy of the Iranian government, people may begin to doubt (or take action against) their somewhat young state.
 * 1979 Revolution:** []

Summary- This article discusses Iran's turbulent relationship with nuclear capabilities and how, on the 30th anniversary of the Islamic Revolution, Iran is now a "nuclear" state, with claimed abilities to bomb Israel and US bases in the Persian Gulf. Iran is not following the conditions of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and is seen as somewhat of a rogue state.
 * Nationalism:** []

[] Summary- This article discusses riots as the elections for president in Iran's results are fiercely contested. Mir Moussavi, Ahmedinejad's largest opponent, urges his supporters not to act out for their own safety, as Revolutionary Guards patrol the streets. All opposition leaders demand a recount, but the Ayatollah only agrees to recount contested districts, saying that Ahmedinejad won by "a large margin." Many people in Iran don't feel as though their votes have any say because they know of the intense corruption within their government.
 * Political Inefficacy:**

[] []
[] [|www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/special/.../M27.ch4/] [] <span style="color: #808080; font-family: Georgia,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 16px;">http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/iran-election